ASTM International has approved and published a seventh annex to D7566, the sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) specification, with support from the Commercial Aviation Alternative Fuels Initiative (CAAFI).
In February 2020, ASTM International approved and published the sixth annex to D7566, establishing criteria for the production and use of catalytic hydrothermolysis jet fuel (CHJ), a type of synthetic kerosene. (Earlier post.)
Annex A7 establishes criteria for the production and use of a type of synthesized paraffinic kerosene from hydrocarbon-hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HC-HEFA-SPK). The standard provides that HC-HEFA-SPK fuel, the development of which was led by IHI Corporation, may be blended at up to 10% by volume with conventional jet fuel.
This fuel pathway was the first to receive expedited review under ASTM’s D4054 “fast track” review process and benefitted from guidance from a special clearinghouse established by the US Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) to help guide SAF producers through the rigorous assessment and approval process.
In FY2017, IHI Group began, in partnership with Kobe University, the NEDO supported R&D project “Development of Production Technologies for Bio jet fuels / Pilot scale test on once through production process” to produce algae-based biofuel, using the hyper-growth Botryococcus braunii.
Botryococcus features an exceptionally high growth rate and high hydrocarbon oil content; IHI’s fuel is based on the hydroprocessing of oil from Botryococcus braunii (Bb oil).
IHI also began work with Showa Shell Sekiyu K.K. to identify issues and countermeasures upon integration of bio jet fuel supply scheme, from shipping to fueling a blended fuel of neat bio jet derived from microalgae and Showa Shell’ Sekiyu K.K.’s petroleum-based jet.
The first five alternative jet fuels incorporated as Annexes of D7566 are:
Annex A1: Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (FT-SPK) (2009)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 50% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): Syngas. Syngas is typically produced from the gasification of biomass such as municipal solid waste (MSW), agricultural and forest wastes, and wood and energy crops, as well as non-renewable feedstocks such as coal and natural gas. The feedstock is gasified at high temperatures (1200 to 1600 degrees Celsius), which deconstructs the feedstock into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and CO2 primarily, as well as some ash. The gas mixture is separated and cleaned to produce pure syngas, and it is then converted to long carbon chain waxes through the FT Synthesis Process. Syngas, or its components, can also come from other industrial processes.
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Process/Product Description: The Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Synthesis Process is a catalyzed chemical reaction in which synthesis gas is converted into liquid hydrocarbons of various forms via the use of a reactor with cobalt or iron catalyst. The wax is then cracked and isomerized to produce drop-in liquid fuels essentially identical to the paraffins in petroleum-based jet fuel, but the FT process does not typically produce the cyclo-paraffins and aromatic compounds typically found in petroleum-based jet fuel.
Annex A2: Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (HEFA-SPK) (2011)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 50% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): Specifically, fatty acids and fatty acid esters, or more generally various lipids that come from plant and animal fats, oils, and greases (FOGs).
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Process/Product Description: Natural oils are converted from lipids to hydrocarbons by treating the oil with hydrogen to remove oxygen and other less desirable molecules. The hydrocarbons are cracked and isomerized, creating a synthetic jet fuel blending component comprised of paraffins.
Annex A3: Hydroprocessed Fermented Sugars to Synthetic Isoparaffins (HFS-SIP) (2014)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 10% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): Sugars
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Process/Product Description: The process uses modified yeasts to ferment sugars into a hydrocarbon molecule. This produces a C15 hydrocarbon molecule called farnesene, which after hydroprocessing to farnesane, can be used as a blendstock in jet fuel.
Annex A4: Fischer-Tropsch Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene with Aromatics (FT-SPK/A) (2015)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 50% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): Same as Annex A1.
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Process/Product Description: Uses the FT Synthesis Process plus the alkylation of light aromatics (primarily benzene) to create a hydrocarbon blend that includes aromatic compounds that are required to ensure elastomer seal swell in aircraft components to prevent fuel leaks. FT-SPK/A introduces the migration toward fuels that offer a full spectrum of molecules found in petroleum-based jet fuel, rather than just paraffins.
Annex A5: Alcohol to Jet Synthetic Paraffinic Kerosene (ATJ-SPK) (2016)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 50% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): This annex is intended to eventually cover the use of any 2 to 5 carbon alcohols, but at present, it only allows the individual use of ethanol and isobutanol. The alcohols can come from any source, but are usually derived from fermentation of starches/sugars, which themselves can come from starch/sugar producing feedstocks (e.g. field corn, sweet sorghum, cane, sugar beets, tubers) or derived from cellulosic biomass (e.g. via hydrolysis from lignocellulose).
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Process/Product Description: Dehydration of isobutanol or ethanol followed by oligomerization, hydrogenation and fractionation to yield a hydrocarbon jet fuel blending component.
Annex A6: Catalytic Hydrothermolysis Synthesized Kerosene (CH-SK, or CHJ) (2020)
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Blending: Required to be blended with petroleum-based jet fuel, up to a 50% maximum level.
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Feedstock(s): Specifically, fatty acids and fatty acid esters, or more generally various lipids that come from plant and animal fats, oils and greases (FOGs).
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Process/Product Description: Hydroprocessed synthesized kerosene containing normal and iso-paraffins, cycloparaffins, and aromatics produced from hydrothermal conversion of fatty acid esters and free fatty acids along with any combination of hydrotreating, hydrocracking, or hydroisomerization, and other conventional refinery processes, but including fractionation as a final process step.
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ASTM approves 7th annex to D7566 sustainable jet fuel specification: HC-HEFA - Green Car Congress
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